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the Chinese People Have Stood Up. China Will Never Again Be an Insulted Nation.

Written By dimanche 27 mars 2022 Add Comment Edit

1839–1949 Chinese catamenia of intervention and subjugation past foreign powers

Century of humiliation
Traditional Chinese 百年國恥
Simplified Chinese 百年国耻

Major powers plan to cut upwards China for themselves; US, Germany, Italy, Uk, France, Russia, Republic of austria are represented by Wilhelm II, Umberto I, John Bull, Franz Joseph I (in rear), Uncle Sam, Nicholas II, and Émile Loubet. Puck Aug 23, 1899, past J. S. Pughe

The century of humiliation, also known as the hundred years of national humiliation, is the term used in China to depict the flow of intervention and subjugation of the Qing dynasty and the Republic of China by Western powers and Nihon from 1839 to 1949.[1]

The term arose in 1915, in the atmosphere of rising Chinese nationalism opposing the Twenty-I Demands made by the Japanese government and their acceptance past Yuan Shikai, with the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Political party) and Chinese Communist Party both subsequently popularizing the characterization.

History [edit]

Chinese nationalists in the 1920s and the 1930s dated the Century of Humiliation to the mid-19th century, on the eve of the Get-go Opium War[2] amidst the dramatic political unraveling of Qing China that followed.[3]

Defeats by foreign powers cited every bit part of the Century of Humiliation include the post-obit:

  • Defeat in the Get-go Opium State of war (1839–1842) by the British
  • The unequal treaties (in particular Nanking, Whampoa, Aigun and Shimonoseki)
  • Defeat in the Second Opium War (1856–1860) and the sacking of the Old Summer Palace past British and French forces.
  • The signing of the Treaty of Aigun (1858) and Treaty of Peking (1860) during the Second Opium War, which ceded Outer Manchuria to Russia.
  • The partial defeat during the Sino-French War (1884-1885), which lost its suzerainty over Vietnam and its influence in the Indochina Peninsula.
  • Defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) by Nippon
  • The Eight-Nation Alliance invasion to suppress the Boxer uprising (1899–1901) and the resulting Boxer Protocol which imposed reparations in excess of the authorities'south annual tax acquirement.[4]
  • The simultaneous Russian invasion of Manchuria (1900)[5] [vi]
  • The British trek to Tibet (1903–1904)[vii]
  • The Twenty-1 Demands (1915) for an advantageous loan and local government control by Nihon
  • The Treaty of Versailles (1919) in which German territory in China was handed to Japan and led to the anti-imperialist May Quaternary Motion.
  • The Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931–1932)
  • The 2nd Sino-Japanese State of war (1937–1945)

In that period, China suffered major internal fragmentation, lost almost all of the wars that it fought, and was often forced to requite major concessions to the great powers in unequal treaties.[8] In many cases, China was forced to pay large amounts of reparations, open up ports for trade, lease or sacrifice territories (such every bit Outer Manchuria, parts of Northwest Mainland china and Sakhalin to the Russian Empire, Jiaozhou Bay to Deutschland, Hong Kong to Great United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, Macau to Portugal, Zhanjiang to French republic, and Taiwan and Dalian to Nihon) and brand various other concessions of sovereignty to foreign "spheres of influence" afterwards military defeats. Chiang Kai-shek in particular created a category in his diary titled "avenging humiliation" after a 1928 skirmish with the Japanese in what became known equally the Jinan Incident. For the adjacent ii decades, he wrote in this entry as he reflected upon methods to overcome royal encroachment into China while as well shoring upwards domestic disunity.[nine]

  • American troops scaling the burning Beijing city walls during the Boxer Rebellion, 1900

  • Soldiers of the Eight-Nation Alliance in the Forbidden City post-obit the defeat of the Boxer Rebellion, 1900

  • Chinese opium smokers, 1902

End of humiliation [edit]

Already during the conclusion of the Boxer Protocol in 1901, some of the Western powers believed they had acted in backlog and that the Protocol was as well humiliating. As a issue, U.S. Secretarial assistant of State John Hay formulated the Open up Door Policy, which prevented the colonial powers from directly etching up China into de jure colonies, and guaranteed universal trade admission to markets in Cathay. Intended to weaken Frg, Nippon, and Russia, information technology was just somewhat enforced and was gradually cleaved by the post-obit warlord era and Japanese interventions.[11] The semi-contradictory nature of the Open Door policy was noted early, equally although it preserved the territorial integrity of Prc from foreign powers, information technology also led to trade exploitation by the same countries. With the Root–Takahira Agreement in 1908, the U.Due south. and Japan upheld the Open up Door Policy, but other factors (such every bit immigration restrictions, and the assignment of the Boxer Indemnity to a managed Boxer Indemnity Scholarship instead of directly returned to the Qing authorities) led to a continuation in humiliation from the Chinese perspective.[12] Open Door was ultimately dissolved in WWII when Japan invaded China.

Extraterritorial jurisdiction and other privileges were abased by the United Kingdom and the Usa in 1943. During Globe War 2, Vichy French republic retained control over French concessions in People's republic of china but was coerced into handing them over to the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime. The postwar Sino-French Accordance of February 1946 affirmed Chinese sovereignty over the concessions.

Chiang Kai-shek declared the cease of the Century of Humiliation in 1943 with the abrogation of all the unequal treaties and Mao Zedong declared its terminate in the aftermath of World War II, with Chiang promoting his wartime resistance to Japanese rule and Mainland china'south place among the Big Four in the victorious Allies in 1945, and Mao alleged it with the establishment of the People's Republic of Red china in 1949.

Chinese politicians and writers,[ who? ] still, take connected to portray later on events as the true end of humiliation. Its end was alleged in the repulsion of UN forces during the Korean War, the 1997 reunification with Hong Kong, the 1999 reunification with Macau, and even the hosting of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Others[ who? ] claim that humiliation volition not end until the People'south Democracy of China controls Taiwan.[13]

In 2021, coinciding with the United states of america–Red china talks in Alaska, the Chinese government began referring to the catamenia every bit 120 years of humiliation, a reference to the 1901 Boxer Protocol in which the Qing Dynasty was forced to pay big reparation to members of the Eight-Nation Alliance.[fourteen]

Implications [edit]

The usage of the Century of Humiliation in the Chinese Communist Party'due south historiography and modern Chinese nationalism, with its focus on the "sovereignty and integrity of [Chinese] territory,"[15] has been invoked in incidents such as the US bombing of the Chinese Belgrade embassy, the Hainan Island incident, and protests for Tibetan independence along the 2008 Beijing Olympics torch relay.[16] Some analysts accept pointed to its use in deflecting foreign criticism of human rights abuses in China and domestic attending from bug of corruption and bolstering its territorial claims and general economic and political rise.[xiii] [17] [xviii]

Commentary and criticism [edit]

Jane E. Elliott criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat Western armies equally simplistic past noting that People's republic of china embarked on a massive armed services modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, bought weapons from Western countries and manufactured its own at arsenals, such as the Hanyang Arsenal during the Boxer Rebellion. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese lodge was traumatized by the Western victories, as many Chinese peasants (then 90% of the population) lived exterior the concessions and continued most their daily lives uninterrupted and without any feeling of "humiliation".[19]

Historians accept judged the Qing dynasty'due south vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness, only it accomplished military success against Westerners on land. The historian Edward 50. Dreyer stated, "Red china'southward nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the beginning of the Showtime Opium War, People's republic of china had no unified navy and non a sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the body of water. British navy forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to get. In the Pointer War (1856–60), the Chinese had no way to foreclose the Anglo-French navy expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing every bit well-nigh as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modernistic Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Cardinal Asia, and defeated the French forces on country in the Sino-French War (1884–85). But the defeat at body of water, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."[20] [21]

Similar usage [edit]

In a 2022 speech communication, Indian Government minister of External Affairs Southward Jaishankar has used the term in a local context by saying, "India had two centuries of humiliation past West."[22] [23]

See also [edit]

  • Anti-Japanese sentiment in Mainland china
  • Anti-Western sentiment in China
  • Concessions in Mainland china
  • Hurting the feelings of the Chinese people
  • List of Chinese treaty ports
  • Revanchism
  • Sick man of Asia
  • Unequal treaty

References [edit]

  1. ^ Adcock Kaufman, Alison (2010). "The "Century of Humiliation," Then and Now: Chinese Perceptions of the International Order". Pacific Focus. 25 (1): 1–33. doi:10.1111/j.1976-5118.2010.01039.x.
  2. ^ Gries (2004), p. 43-49.
  3. ^ Chang, Maria Hsia (2001). Render of the dragon: People's republic of china'z wounded nationalism. Westview Press. pp. 69–70. ISBN978-0-8133-3856-9.
  4. ^ Gries, Peter Hays (2004). People's republic of china's New Nationalism: Pride, Politics, and Diplomacy . Academy of California Printing. pp. 43–49. ISBN978-0-520-93194-7.
  5. ^ Shambaugh, David (2020-01-30). People's republic of china and the World. Oxford University Printing. p. 73. ISBN978-0-19-006231-six.
  6. ^ Shapiro, Judith (2013-04-17). China's Environmental Challenges. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-7456-6309-8.
  7. ^ "China Seizes on a Dark Chapter for Tibet", by Edward Wong, The New York Times, August 9, 2010 (August 10, 2010 p. A6 of NY ed.). Retrieved 2010-08-10.
  8. ^ Nike, Lan (2003-11-twenty). "Poisoned path to openness". Shanghai Star. Archived from the original on 2010-03-23. Retrieved 2010-08-fourteen .
  9. ^ Huang, Grace C. (2021). Chiang Kai-shek's Politics of Shame: Leadership, Legacy, and National Identity. Harvard Academy Asia Centre. pp. 19–23. ISBN9780674260146.
  10. ^ 俄罗斯帝国总参谋部. 《亚洲地理、地形和统计材料汇编》. 俄罗斯帝国: 圣彼得堡. 1886年: 第三十一卷·第185页 （俄语）.
  11. ^ Cullinane, Michael Patrick (2017-01-17). Open up Door Era: Usa Foreign Policy in the Twentieth Century. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 25–26, 178. ISBN978-1-4744-0132-6.
  12. ^ Moore, Gregory (2015-05-27). Defining and Defending the Open Door Policy: Theodore Roosevelt and China, 1901–1909. Lexington Books. pp. xiii, xiv, fifteen. ISBN978-0-7391-9996-i.
  13. ^ a b Kilpatrick, Ryan (twenty October 2011). "National Humiliation in Communist china". e-International Relations. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  14. ^ Ross Smith, Nicholas; Fallon, Tracey. "How the CCP Uses History". thediplomat.com. The Diplomat. Retrieved seven July 2021.
  15. ^ W A Callahan. "National Insecurities: Humiliation, Salvation and Chinese Nationalism" (PDF). Alternatives. 20 (2004): 199.
  16. ^ Jayshree Bajoria (April 23, 2008). "Nationalism in China". Quango on Strange Relations. Archived from the original on 2009-10-14. Retrieved 2009-xi-12 .
  17. ^ "Narratives Of Humiliation: Chinese And Japanese Strategic Culture – Analysis". Eurasia Review. International Relations and Security Network. 23 April 2012. Retrieved three April 2013.
  18. ^ Callahan, William (fifteen August 2008). "China: The Pessoptimist Nation". The Prc Beat. Archived from the original on 2013-02-17. Retrieved v Apr 2020.
  19. ^ Jane Eastward. Elliott (2002). Some did it for civilisation, some did information technology for their country: a revised view of the boxer war. Chinese University Press. p. 143. ISBN962-996-066-four . Retrieved 2010-06-28 .
  20. ^ PO, Chung-yam (28 June 2013). Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: The Great Qing and the Maritime Globe in the Long Eighteenth Century (PDF) (Thesis). Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg. p. eleven.
  21. ^ Edward 50. Dreyer, Zheng He: Red china and the Body of water in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405–1433 (New York: Pearson Educational activity Inc., 2007), p. 180
  22. ^ "India humiliated by W for most two centuries, says EAM S Jaishankar in Usa". www.timesnownews.com . Retrieved 2021-02-23 .
  23. ^ "External Affairs Minister's remarks at Atlantic Council, Washington D.C. on 1 October 2019". world wide web.mea.gov.in. Archived from the original on 2020-09-21. Retrieved 2021-02-23 . many of yous would have heard in another country the term, a century of humiliation. India actually had two centuries of humiliation by the West because the West, kind of in its predatory form came into India in the mid 18th century and continued for almost 190 years after that.

Bibliography and farther reading [edit]

  • Huang, Grace C. (2021). Chiang Kai-Shek'south Politics of Shame: Leadership, Legacy, and National Identity in People's republic of china. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Academy Asia Eye. ISBN9780674260139.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_of_humiliation

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